international cyberstalking laws

/Pg 31 0 R /P 9 0 R /MediaBox [0.0 0.0 595.32 841.92] >> 133 0 obj << << Cyberstalking has been illegal since 2011. /P 9 0 R /Resources << << /Pg 26 0 R For example, in the case of United States v. Lori Drew, in which Megan Meier had committed suicide after being bullied on MySpace, three of the four charges against the defendant (Drew) were actually in response to alleged violations of the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act, since specific statues against cyberbullying were not on the books. 7, 2013, see section 4 of Pub. /Pg 31 0 R /P 9 0 R However, just as with slander and libel, it is important to balance the protection of freedom of speech of both parties with the need for protection of the target. ), In response to Phoebe Prince's suicide, as well as that of Carl Walkerboth of whom had been bullied before taking their livesthe Massachusetts legislature in 2010 passed what advocates call one of the toughest anti-bullying laws in the nation. /Pg 17 0 R << 26 0 obj 16 [153 0 R 155 0 R 156 0 R 157 0 R 158 0 R 159 0 R 160 0 R 161 0 R null 556 0 R Webfocuses on the difficulties of dealing with international crime in general and international (cyber)stalking in specific. After progressing through the courts, the charges against Baker were dismissed primarily on grounds that there was no evidence that Baker would actually act out the fantasies contained in those stories. << >> 59 0 obj >> /S /P >> endobj 116 0 obj >> 89 514 0 R 90 516 0 R 91 517 0 R 92 524 0 R 93 525 0 R /K [8 366 0 R 26] << 93 0 R 94 0 R 95 0 R 96 0 R 97 0 R 98 0 R 99 0 R 100 0 R 101 0 R 102 0 R 120 0 obj 66 0 obj /P 9 0 R /Rotate 0 143 0 R 542 0 R 143 0 R 543 0 R 143 0 R 544 0 R 144 0 R] /Underline /Span /Kids [23 0 R 24 0 R 25 0 R 26 0 R 27 0 R 28 0 R 29 0 R 30 0 R 31 0 R 32 0 R] Explanation : Cyberstalking involves using electronic means, including the Internet, to stalk or harass a person or group of people. /Type /Page /S /P >> /Annots [228 0 R] endobj 24 0 obj /Pg 27 0 R /P 9 0 R /K [454 0 R 455 0 R 456 0 R 457 0 R 458 0 R 459 0 R 460 0 R 461 0 R 462 0 R 463 0 R] endobj >> >> /Parent 8 0 R endobj 147 0 obj /Parent 8 0 R 10 [110 0 R 112 0 R 113 0 R 114 0 R 115 0 R 116 0 R 117 0 R 118 0 R 119 0 R 120 0 R /TT0 243 0 R 213 0 R 214 0 R 215 0 R 216 0 R 217 0 R 218 0 R] /TT3 245 0 R << /S /P /S /P 34 0 obj >> >> 505 0 R null 506 0 R null 507 0 R null 508 0 R null 509 0 R null endobj << /S /P Pittaro M. L. (2007). /TT0 243 0 R This is the Convention on Cybercrime, signed by the Council of Europe in Budapest on November 23, 2001. endobj /ProcSet [/PDF /Text /ImageB /ImageC /ImageI] /S /P /S /P /Xf1 227 0 R 152 0 obj A cyberstalking conviction can be accompanied by up to five years in prison and a $250,000 fine. << /MediaBox [0.0 0.0 595.32 841.92] travels in interstate or foreign commerce or is present within the special maritime and territorial jurisdiction of the United, places that person in reasonable fear of the death of, or, with the intent to kill, injure, harass, intimidate, or place under surveillance with intent to kill, injure, harass, or intimidate another person, uses the mail, any interactive computer service or electronic communication service or electronic communication system of interstate commerce, or any other facility of interstate or foreign commerce to engage in a, Pub. 74 483 0 R 75 484 0 R 76 485 0 R 77 486 0 R 78 623 0 R /K 5 >> /S /P Prior to amendment, text read as follows: Whoever travels across a State line or within the special maritime and territorial jurisdiction of the United States with the intent to injure or harass another person, and in the course of, or as a result of, such travel places that person in reasonable fear of the death of, or serious bodily injury (as defined in section 1365(g)(3) of this title) to, that person or a member of that persons immediate family (as defined in section 115 of this title) shall be punished as provided in section 2261 of this title.. /P 9 0 R /K 3 /ColorSpace << >> /K 6 >> << << /Pg 25 0 R 73 0 R 74 0 R 75 0 R 76 0 R 77 0 R 78 0 R 79 0 R 80 0 R 81 0 R 82 0 R /Pg 26 0 R /K [1 382 0 R 28 383 0 R 30] On the Internet, public messages can be accessed by anyone at any time. /P 9 0 R /K 6 << /Pg 17 0 R 169 0 obj WebPrvn pedpisy o kyberstalkingu - Cyberstalking legislation Kybernetick pronsledovn a kyberikana jsou relativn novmi jevy, ale to neznamen, e zloiny spchan prostednictvm st nelze trestat podle legislativy navren k tomuto elu. /Pg 22 0 R A lot is at stake in a federal cyberstalking case, which is why you need aggressive defense on your side. /K 1 /S /P Cybercrime is a growing concern to countries at all levels of developments and affects both, buyers and sellers. /Contents 268 0 R /ColorSpace << /K [7 388 0 R 40] endobj >> >> /TT0 243 0 R 28 0 obj << 205 0 obj >> /K [571 0 R 572 0 R 573 0 R] Under the Dormant Commerce Clause, a state or local law is unconstitutional when it imposes a burden on interstate commerce that is clearly excessive in relation to the putative local benefits. As applied in this context, this doctrine is used to evaluate state laws that regulate Internet use, such as cyberstalking laws. /K [0 389 0 R 23 390 0 R 25 391 0 R 27 392 0 R 29] /P 9 0 R 135 0 obj /Parent 3 0 R /Parent 6 0 R >> /K [4 469 0 R 40 470 0 R 42 471 0 R 44 472 0 R 46] /Pg 15 0 R /Annots [324 0 R 325 0 R 326 0 R 327 0 R 328 0 R 329 0 R] [42] One of the oft-cited arguments against the bill comes from talk radio, with the concern expressed being that the law would be used to silence political opponents who use the airwaves to espouse divergent viewpoints. >> /Pg 31 0 R 73 0 obj /K 9 69 470 0 R 70 471 0 R 71 472 0 R 72 621 0 R 73 482 0 R /S /P endobj endobj In addition, opponents call the proposed sentences (up to two years incarceration) excessive. << New York state passed the Dignity For All Students Act, focusing primarily on elementary and middle school students. /S /P /Resources << endobj /SourceModified (D:20110216092838) /TT2 244 0 R endobj /S /Footnote WebDavid's Law is a state law in Texas, that labels cyberstalking a misdemeanor crime, but it also lays out several other rights victims or parents of victims have in ensuring justice. /P 9 0 R 90 0 obj /P 4 0 R endobj Retrieved October 14, 2019, from. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 73, 10-17. << xV]sF4/m::%aN4!-W~Ho^XJkH{V[?7tp5v^ymqS_ `.O>LjimLi41?u(j&Yh?Zm\lZ !Gs'#~?#U /ColorSpace << /Pg 22 0 R /Pg 31 0 R 77 0 obj L. 115334, 12502(a)(1)(A), added cl. /Contents 342 0 R /S /P 146 0 obj /P 9 0 R In 2009, Representative Linda Snchez (D-CA) brought legislation titled the "Megan Meier Cyberbullying Prevention Act" before the U.S. House of Representatives. endobj /S /P /K 7 /Pg 18 0 R /P 9 0 R UNCTAD - Palais des Nations, 8-14, Av. /Pg 17 0 R /Contents 274 0 R 101 0 obj /Annots [275 0 R 276 0 R 277 0 R 278 0 R 279 0 R] << >> << /P 9 0 R "Electronic communication" includes transmissions by a computer through the Internet to another computer. /K 11 2011-02-16T10:29:38+01:00 156 0 R 565 0 R 156 0 R] endobj endobj << /CropBox [0.0 0.0 595.32 841.92] >> << 61 0 obj /Pg 32 0 R 70 0 obj /S /P >> Attempts at legislating cyberbullying have been tried at the federal level, primarily because the Commerce Clause of the U.S. Constitution specifically provides that only the federal government can regulate commerce between the states; this includes electronic communication over the Internet. /P 9 0 R >> 7-39). 8 0 obj << /StructParents 13 >> << 2006Pub. /P 9 0 R 610 0 R 611 0 R 612 0 R 613 0 R 614 0 R 615 0 R 616 0 R 617 0 R 618 0 R 619 0 R /Pg 25 0 R /S /P /K 10 /K 4 << 218 0 obj /Pg 17 0 R endobj /K 19 113 0 R 114 0 R 115 0 R 116 0 R 117 0 R 118 0 R 119 0 R 120 0 R 121 0 R 122 0 R 125 0 obj endobj /K 3 162 0 obj 37 390 0 R 38 391 0 R 39 392 0 R 40 402 0 R 41 403 0 R 96 0 R 445 0 R 96 0 R 446 0 R 96 0 R 452 0 R 98 0 R 453 0 R 103 0 R] /Pg 32 0 R 155 0 obj endobj [48] In addition, as with the Snchez bill, there are questions as to the free speech implications.[49]. << 140 0 obj /S /Footnote /S /P 43 0 R 44 0 R 45 0 R 46 0 R 47 0 R 48 0 R 49 0 R 50 0 R 51 0 R 52 0 R /S /P 193 0 R 194 0 R 195 0 R 196 0 R 197 0 R 198 0 R 199 0 R 200 0 R 201 0 R 202 0 R In 2013, Indian Parliament made amendments to the Indian Penal Code, introducing cyberstalking as a criminal offence. 188 0 obj << >> /S /P >> >> /Parent 8 0 R /Pg 24 0 R Cyber stalking: An analysis of online harassment and intimidation. << /S /P >> /K [33 0 R 34 0 R 35 0 R 36 0 R 37 0 R 38 0 R 39 0 R 40 0 R 41 0 R 42 0 R /Pg 31 0 R endobj << 43 0 obj endobj The DRB was open about the absence of precedent for the specific federal crime of cyberstalking and searched nationally for a comparable case, said Roger Plawker of Pashman Stein Walder Hayden. >> << 9 0 obj 595 0 R 596 0 R 597 0 R 598 0 R 599 0 R null 431 0 R null 432 0 R null stream 87 0 obj /CropBox [0.0 0.0 595.32 841.92] /P 9 0 R >> endobj >> /S /P [12][13], That said, true threats are not considered to be protected speech. Texas enacted the Stalking by Electronic Communications Act in 2001. /Pg 18 0 R /F2 224 0 R 141 0 obj endobj << 65 0 obj << 497 0 R 124 0 R 498 0 R 124 0 R 499 0 R 125 0 R 500 0 R 125 0 R] >> /S /P endobj /K [2 564 0 R 30 565 0 R 32] /K [360 0 R 361 0 R 362 0 R 363 0 R] /CropBox [0.0 0.0 595.32 841.92] /Length 1250 /K 15 Blunt Signs Bill Outlawing Cyberbullying", "Federal judge blocks Washington state cyberstalking law", "How punishing people for 'doxxing' could prove tricky for Washington lawmakers", "Cyberbullying Bill Gets Chilly Reception", "Federal Cyberbullying Law: 'Worth a Try'? 72 0 obj /Contents 309 0 R endobj endobj /P 9 0 R << >> /K [0 359 0 R 20] endobj << endobj 161 0 obj /P 9 0 R << /K 5 /Resources << 83 0 R 84 0 R 85 0 R 86 0 R 87 0 R 88 0 R 89 0 R 90 0 R 91 0 R 92 0 R 47 0 obj /Parent 6 0 R /Pg 32 0 R /Pg 31 0 R Cyberstalking in conjunction with a credible threat is also considered aggravated stalking.[31]. In order to answer this question an assessment of whetthere will first beher the Laws, Research, and Recommendations in R.C. /K [4 424 0 R 21] While 156 countries (80 per cent) have enacted cybercrime legislation, the pattern varies by region: Europe has the highest adoption rate (91 per cent) and Africa the lowest (72 per cent). >> /P 9 0 R endobj endobj 95 0 R 96 0 R 98 0 R 99 0 R 100 0 R 101 0 R 102 0 R 103 0 R null 447 0 R 13 [132 0 R 133 0 R 135 0 R 136 0 R 137 0 R 138 0 R 139 0 R 140 0 R null 518 0 R /Kids [219 0 R 220 0 R 221 0 R] << /CS1 [/ICCBased 242 0 R] [51], New Zealand Minister of Justice Judith Collins plans to introduce a law that would make it an offence to incite people to commit suicide, or post material that is grossly offensive by the end of 2013. L. 115334, 12502(a)(1)(B), inserted ,a pet, a service animal, an emotional support animal, or a horse after to a person and substituted (iii), or (iv) for or (iii). 195 0 obj /Pg 28 0 R /StructParents 7 endobj >> /Pg 20 0 R /K 6 /S /P endobj /P 9 0 R 143 0 R 144 0 R 145 0 R 146 0 R 147 0 R 148 0 R 149 0 R 150 0 R 151 0 R 152 0 R << 109 0 R 470 0 R 109 0 R 471 0 R 109 0 R 472 0 R 109 0 R] >> /K 3 129 0 obj >> /S /P endobj 172 0 obj /P 9 0 R /CS0 [/ICCBased 241 0 R] Cybercrimes are a relatively new area of law, and regulations continue to evolve. << endobj >> /K 15 >> /P 9 0 R /S /P /K 14 LockA locked padlock http://www.haltabuse.org/resources/laws/federal.shtml. << >> 103 0 R 104 0 R 105 0 R 106 0 R 107 0 R 108 0 R 109 0 R 110 0 R 111 0 R 112 0 R >> >> /K 16 >> /Rotate 0 null 516 0 R 133 0 R 517 0 R 133 0 R 524 0 R 135 0 R 525 0 R 135 0 R 526 0 R WebThis law is in place to protect privacy and applies to everyones privacy and applies to everyone not just people under 18. >> endobj L. 1134 amended section generally. null 557 0 R null 558 0 R null 559 0 R null 560 0 R null 561 0 R /S /P /Pg 18 0 R >> >> /Annots [259 0 R 260 0 R 261 0 R 262 0 R 263 0 R 264 0 R 265 0 R 266 0 R 267 0 R] /S /P /S /P /K 1 /K 4 45 0 obj /Pg 17 0 R Bishop. /Pg 25 0 R /MediaBox [0.0 0.0 595.32 841.92] /Pg 22 0 R >> << 220 0 obj >> /S /P endobj /P 9 0 R 104 0 obj endobj >> /P 9 0 R /CS0 [/ICCBased 241 0 R] /Rotate 0 /Rotate 0 /K 10 /StructParents 16 55 0 R 384 0 R 56 0 R 385 0 R 56 0 R 386 0 R 56 0 R 387 0 R 56 0 R 388 0 R /StructParents 8 54 0 obj >> /Parent 8 0 R /S /P null 529 0 R 141 0 R 530 0 R 141 0 R 531 0 R 141 0 R 532 0 R 141 0 R 541 0 R 182 0 obj endobj endobj /TT2 244 0 R >> endobj >> /CS1 [/ICCBased 242 0 R] /Font << endobj 11 0 obj stream /P 9 0 R 92 0 obj /F3 225 0 R /P 9 0 R << /K [9 482 0 R 28 483 0 R 30 484 0 R 32] /Resources << /K 9 /S /P /P 9 0 R /S /P << /TT1 244 0 R /Type /StructTreeRoot endobj /CropBox [0.0 0.0 595.32 841.92] endobj 402 0 R 64 0 R 403 0 R 65 0 R 404 0 R 65 0 R 405 0 R 65 0 R 406 0 R 65 0 R] de la Paix, 1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland, Welcome to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. >> >> >> /S /P /CS0 [/ICCBased 241 0 R] >> [30], Under Florida Statute 784.048, "cyberstalking," defined as to engage in a course of conduct to communicate, or to cause to be communicated, words, images, or language by or through the use of electronic mail or electronic communication, directed at a specific person, causing substantial emotional distress to that person and serving no legitimate purpose, is classified as a first degree misdemeanor. << 178 0 obj << << /S /Footnote /S /P /S /P /K [556 0 R 557 0 R 558 0 R 559 0 R 560 0 R 561 0 R] 68 0 obj << endobj 176 0 obj L. 1134, set out as a note under section 2261 of this title. 38 0 obj << /TT1 245 0 R /MediaBox [0.0 0.0 595.32 841.92] endobj /Annots [343 0 R 344 0 R 345 0 R 346 0 R 347 0 R 348 0 R] /CS1 [/ICCBased 242 0 R] /Contents 222 0 R /S /P /P 9 0 R /K 13 /S /P WebCyberstalking is the act of threatening, harassing, or annoying someone through multiple email messages, as through the Internet, especially with the intent of placing the recipient /MarkInfo << >> >> endobj endobj /S /P The bill would also enable the U.S. Department of Education to provide training to institutes of higher education to prevent or address harassment. WebFederal law provides some tools to combat cyberstalking. 153 0 obj /K 11 Great Britain had its first cyberstalking conviction in 1999 when a Cambridge graduate was prosecuted in 1999 for harassment by e-mail. 8 [105 0 R 106 0 R 107 0 R 108 0 R 109 0 R 110 0 R null 454 0 R null 455 0 R endobj /Type /Page /S /P 548 0 R null 549 0 R null 627 0 R 628 0 R 550 0 R 151 0 R] /P 9 0 R [2] Not only is the issue of cyberbullying extensive, it has adverse effects on adolescents: increased depression, suicidal behavior, anxiety, and increased susceptibility of drug use and aggressive behavior.[3]. endobj /Pg 31 0 R Finally, individuals should become informed about the dangers of the Internet and ways to protect their privacy while using the Internet. /P 9 0 R /CS0 [/ICCBased 241 0 R] endobj /Font << /S /P Par. /S /Footnote 50 0 obj endobj /StructParents 17 /Pg 14 0 R >> /StructParents 12 While some sites specialize in laws that protect victims age 18 and under, Working to Halt Online Abuse is a help resource listing current and pending cyberstalking-related United States federal and state laws. << /P 9 0 R endobj The jury eventually found Drew innocent of the charges (but guilty of a misdemeanor), a verdict that was later set aside by the judge. endobj Making any comment, request, suggestion or proposal which is obscene with an intent to offend; Interrupting, with the intent to harass, the telephone service or the electronic communication service of any person; Transmitting to any person, with the intent to harass and regardless of whether the communication is read in its entirety or at all, any file, document, or other communication which prevents that person from using his or her telephone service or electronic communications device; Transmitting an electronic communication or knowingly inducing a person to transmit an electronic communication for the purpose of harassing another person who is under 13 years of age, regardless of whether the person under 13 years of age consents to the harassment, if the defendant is at least 16 years of age at the time of the commission of the offense; Threatening injury to the person or to the property of the person to whom an electronic communication is directed or to any of his or her family or household members; or. Google Scholar Eck J. E., Weisburd D. (1995). /Resources << /S /P null 380 0 R null 381 0 R null 582 0 R 583 0 R 382 0 R 55 0 R 383 0 R /S /P endobj 53 0 R 54 0 R 55 0 R 56 0 R 57 0 R 58 0 R 59 0 R 60 0 R 61 0 R 62 0 R endobj >> [26] After sending hundreds of threatening e-mails to an actress, another male convicted after spending months in jail waiting for trial was sentenced in 2001 to five years probation, forbidden access to computers and forced to attend mental health counseling. /S /P /Resources << /Font << Cyberstalking laws in the United States, both federal and state, support victims of all ages, however some sites focus on those laws that protect victims under the age of 18. /S /P 149 0 obj << 9 620 0 R /P 9 0 R /K 26 endobj >> >> /TT0 243 0 R /Pg 21 0 R >> As in Connecticut, New Jersey, and Missouri, the Prince case led to stricter anti-bullying legislation in Massachusetts.[22]. Official websites use .gov /K [504 0 R 505 0 R 506 0 R 507 0 R 508 0 R 509 0 R] /Creator (Acrobat PDFMaker 9.1 for Word) /Pg 21 0 R /S /P endobj /S /P On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. /S /Footnote Opponents point out that harassment on college campuses is already prohibited under existing laws; furthermore, they point out that harassment based on sexual orientation is also covered under existing statutes. /S /Footnote The first cyberstalking law went into effect just over a year ago in California, and Congress is considering a federal law. endobj /Pg 17 0 R << /ColorSpace << /K [1 465 0 R 32 466 0 R 34] /Font << /Type /Page << /Pg 28 0 R >> 173 0 obj 42 404 0 R 43 405 0 R 44 406 0 R 45 407 0 R 46 413 0 R /Type /Pages /P 9 0 R 63 0 R 64 0 R 65 0 R 66 0 R 67 0 R 68 0 R 69 0 R 70 0 R 71 0 R 72 0 R /P 9 0 R /TT0 243 0 R Others send electronic viruses that can infect the victim's files. 10 0 obj 153 0 R 154 0 R 155 0 R 156 0 R 157 0 R 158 0 R 159 0 R 160 0 R 161 0 R 162 0 R /S /P >> << endobj causes, attempts to cause, or would be reasonably expected to cause substantial emotional distress to a person described in clause (i), (ii), or (iii) of paragraph (1)(A). endobj >> 118 0 obj Cyberstalking: A new challenge for law enforcement and industry. L. 115334, title XII, 12502(a)(1). In the United States, for example, nearly every state has laws that address cyberstalking, cyberbullying, or both.[1]. /S /P /MediaBox [0.0 0.0 595.32 841.92] /Rotate 0 56 0 obj >> << /S /P /P 9 0 R /S /P The courts have variously come down on either side of that debate, even within the same state. /CS1 [/ICCBased 242 0 R] /Font << /Annots [229 0 R 230 0 R 231 0 R 232 0 R] >> 132 0 obj 420 0 R null 421 0 R null 422 0 R null 423 0 R null 418 0 R 78 0 R /Font << endobj << For example, a student in California who was suspended from school based on cyberbullying claims took the school district to court, citing a breach of her First Amendment rights; the court agreed with the student and found the school district had overstepped its authority. /P 9 0 R >> /TT1 245 0 R /Pg 15 0 R Also, law enforcement officers must be trained to deal with /TT0 243 0 R 401 0 R null 389 0 R 62 0 R 390 0 R 62 0 R 391 0 R 62 0 R 392 0 R 62 0 R /K [518 0 R 519 0 R 520 0 R 521 0 R 522 0 R 523 0 R] >> Lurigio and S. Herman (eds. << 212 0 R 213 0 R 214 0 R 215 0 R 216 0 R 217 0 R 218 0 R] /MediaBox [0.0 0.0 595.32 841.92] /K 6 Contact Beckham Solis, Attorneys at Law at (305) 290-1884 for representation from a team in Miami with over 35 years of collective experience. >> >> /K [27 453 0 R 48] >> /Contents 284 0 R /Parent 7 0 R With computer stalking, the cyberstalker exploits the Internet and the Windows operating system in order to assume control over the computer of the targeted victim. /TT0 243 0 R >> << /Parent 6 0 R >> /K [447 0 R 448 0 R 449 0 R 450 0 R 451 0 R] endobj /K 578 0 R /S /P [32] Unusual among state laws regarding cyberbullying is a provision that withholds funding for schools who are not in compliance with the provision that they must inform parents of those involved in cyberbullyingboth the bully and the target. /Pg 24 0 R /K 12 /P 9 0 R 2020Pub. North Carolina Court of Appeals Reports (1963-2014) volume 96. >> /Pg 30 0 R /K [7 413 0 R 24 414 0 R 26] /K 17 /Parent 3 0 R << 36 0 obj /Font << >> 37 0 obj /S /P 183 0 obj 181 0 obj /P 9 0 R /K 6 >> 48 0 obj /P 9 0 R /Title (International $cyber$stalking: impediments to investigation and prosecution) << 96 0 obj Download PDF. /Nums [0 [33 0 R 35 0 R 36 0 R 37 0 R 38 0 R 39 0 R 40 0 R 41 0 R 42 0 R 43 0 R /Type /Page /Pg 31 0 R /S /P 121 0 obj /Font << /Pg 14 0 R /PageLayout /OneColumn /Type /Page /Pg 28 0 R /Resources << endobj 41 0 obj endobj /K 9 /StructParents 11 /K 4 /Type /Page /S /P << 81 0 obj uuid:d8c3b813-d862-4a2b-984b-af1190141099 16 0 obj 127 0 obj Went into effect just over a year ago in California, and Congress is considering a federal law in.! 4 of Pub of whetthere will first beher the laws, Research, and Congress is a... 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